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What makes vowels different? I know that depending on the position of tongue and the mouth shape the different vowels can be produced. But what makes vowels different in terms of sound waves?

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Short answer: Different harmonic content. Same answer as to the question of why one musical instrument sounds different from another.

Your mouth and throat act as a complicated resonant cavity, and changing the shape of it changes which harmonics in your voice are enhanced and which are diminished.

Solomon Slow
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  • Yes, this leads to formants https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formant One can measure these with spectrogram apps on a mobile phone. –  Dec 30 '19 at 08:29